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the warrior gene myth
the warrior gene myth

FOOTNOTES

¹ Sleek, S. (2023). The Bad-Behavior Blend. Association for Psychological Science Observer. psychologicalscience.org

² Brunner, H.G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X.O., Ropers, H.H., & van Oost, B.A. (1993). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science, 262(5133), 578–580.

³ Horgan, J. (2011). Code Rage: The Warrior Gene Makes Me Mad (Whether I Have It or Not). Scientific American. scientificamerican.com

⁴ The Spinoff. (2021). We need to throw out a mindblowing amount of science and start again. thespinoff.co.nz. Citing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) demonstrating no measurable impact of MAOA variants on antisocial behavior.

⁵ McSwiggan, Elger & Appelbaum (2017), ibid.

⁶ NAACP Legal Defense Fund. Amicus Brief, Wells v. Guerrero, No. 25-732 (Jan. 20, 2026). Death Penalty Information Center. deathpenaltyinfo.org